Appendix 1. Glossary of Philosophical Terms

Absolute: Something that is independent of, and unconditioned by, anything external to itself (non-contingent).

Abstract idea: A general idea; that which exists in the mind rather than in the external world.

Absurd: In logic, that which is irrational or contradictory.

Accident: In metaphysics, a quality, property or characteristic that is not essential to the nature of a thing. (See “essence”)

Actuality: In scholastic philosophy, the state of being something in reality (or in fact) rather than being something in potential.

A fortiori: Literally, with greater force; in logic, all the more reason.

Agnosticism: The belief that one does not, or cannot, know ultimate reality (especially God).

Altruism: The belief that everyone should be concerned for the benefit and welfare of others.

Amoral: That which is neither moral nor immoral; outside the moral realm.

Analytic proposition: According to Kant, a proposition (statement) that is true by definition; a proposition whose predicate is deducible from the subject, as in "All bachelors are unmarried men."

Anthropomorphism: The act of ascribing human characteristics to non-humans (especially to God).

Apologetics: Literally, to give a defence; in philosophy, to give rational justification for one's beliefs.

A posteriori: In epistemology, knowledge derived from, or posterior to (comes after), five sense experience. Knowledge that comes from experience.

A priori: In epistemology, knowledge which is acquired prior to, or independently of, five sense experience.

Archetype: An original model, type, pattern, or paradigm.

Atheism: The belief that no God or gods exist in or beyond the universe (traditional usage). Sometimes defined as an absence of belief in God.

Attribute: A quality, property, or characteristic which is attributed to, or predicated of, something.

Autonomy: The state of being independent, self-determining, or free.

Being: That which exists, or is real (unchanging reality).

Cartesian dualism: holds that the mind is a nonphysical substance. René Descartes was the first to clearly identify the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and to distinguish this from the brain, which was the seat of intelligence. Hence, he was the first to formulate the mind-body problem in the form in which it exists today. The theory holds that the mind or the soul is encased or carried by the body, but that the two are distinct. See also: mind-body problem

Categorical imperative: Immanuel Kant's central ethical principle of conduct: "Always act so as to will the maxim of your action to become a universal law." Moral conduct should be universalized. The classic example of a purely deontological approach to ethics.

Causality: Every effect must have a sufficient cause; everything that comes into being must have a cause.

Coherence theory of truth: Truth is determined by that which is internally and logically consistent.

Contingent: The state of being dependent upon something else for existence.

Correspondence theory of truth: Truth is determined by that which corresponds to the present state of affairs.

Cosmological argument: A proof for the existence of God; derived from the Greek word kosmos (world), the argument states that a contingent world requires the existence of God as its ultimate cause. The argument appears in different forms (unmoved mover, first cause, contingency, kalam), and has been presented and defended by numerous philosophers including: Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Gottfried Leibniz, and Medieval Islamic philosopher Al-Ghazali.

Cosmos: From the Greek word kosmos, meaning world or universe.

Deductive reasoning: Reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument follows with logical necessity (certainty) from the premises. Deductive Reasoning usually proceeds from general to particular, or from whole to parts. Contrasted with Inductive Reasoning.

Deism: Belief in a God who created the world, but does not intervene within it (God is transcendent, but not immanent). This religious world view, which emphasizes reason over revelation, was most popular during the 17th and 18th centuries in England, France and America.

Determinism: The view that everything in the universe is controlled by previous conditions, and therefore could not be otherwise.

Dialectic: The process of drawing out logical truths through dialogue, reasoning and argumentation.

Dualism: In metaphysics, the view that reality consists of two fundamentally distinct entities, the physical and “spiritual”.

Efficient cause: The agent through which something is produced or comes into being.

Empiricism: The belief that the source of all knowledge is five sense experience. All knowledge of actually existing things is acquired through five sense experience. Contrasted with Rationalism.

Epicurieanism: A hedonistic philosophy, founded by Epicurus, which stressed long-term and higher pleasure (i.e., pleasures of the mind over the bodily appetites).

Epistemology: The branch or field of philosophy concerned with the origin, nature, and limits of knowledge.

Essence: The nature or "whatness" of a thing. The qualities or attributes hat make a thing what it is. (See “accident”)

Ethics: The branch or field of philosophy concerned with moral values and human conduct.

Existentialism: A modern approach (movement) to philosophy which rejects abstractions, and stresses concrete reality, especially individual human freedom, choice, subjectivity, and existence.

Fideism: The view that there is no way (and often no need) to justify one's beliefs (usually religious belief). It is usually asserted that faith alone is sufficient.

Final cause: The purpose for the sake of which an agent [person] acts (i.e., the end or goal). One of Aristotle's four causes.

Finite: Having specific boundaries, limitations, or an end. Limitations in attributes and character. Considered the opposite of infinite.

Form: In metaphysics, the essence or nature of an entity.

Formal cause: The structure, form, pattern, or configuration of which something consists. One of Aristotle's four causes.

Foundationalism: In epistemology, the belief that all knowledge is based upon first principles (foundational truths) which provide justification for all other beliefs. Some would argue that these foundational truths are themselves not subject to any proof.

Hedonism: The ethical viewpoint which asserts that pleasure is the summum bonum (greatest good). It is often asserted that mankind is a pleasure-seeking, pain-avoiding animal. There have been several different types of hedonistic philosophies (e.g., Epicureanism, Egoism, Utilitarianism, etc.).

Humanism: The view that "mankind is the measure of all things." Something's value or significance is measured by its relationship to mankind.

Idealism: The metaphysical view that all reality consists of mind and/or ideas. Contrasted with Materialism.

Inherent rights: Rights that are not contingent upon the condition of the subject. Those rights that pertain to the nature of the subject. e.g., A person differs from a thing in that he has rights as part of his nature.

Immanent: The state of being present with something (e.g., God is immanent [present within the universe]).

Independent: In Metaphysics, existence that is not conditioned or controlled by something external to itself; a non-contingent.

Indeterminism: The view that at least some events, especially the human will and behaviour, are free of causal determination.

Indubitable: Beyond all doubt; absolutely or unquestionably true.

Inductive reasoning: Reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument follows only probably from the premises. Inductive Reasoning usually proceeds from particular to general, or from parts to whole. Contrasted with Deductive Reasoning.

Infinite: Without boundaries, limitations, or an end. No limitations in attributes or character. Considered the opposite of finite.

Innate ideas: The belief that at least some ideas are inborn (i.e., present in the mind at birth).

Logic: The study of the principles of correct thinking. The science that evaluates thinking and argumentation. Considered a major branch or field of philosophy.

Material cause: The matter, stuff, or substance of which something is made. One of Aristotle's four causes.

Materialism: The metaphysical view that all reality consists of material or physical entities with their physical properties. Contrasted with Idealism.

Metaphysics: The branch or field of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature, structure, and characteristics of reality. A narrow usage of the term refers to the study of that which lies beyond the physical realm (i.e., the supernatural realm). Metaphysics is sometimes used interchangeably with the term Ontology.

Mind-body problem or “dichotomy”, is the view that "mental" phenomena are, "non-physical" (distinct from the body). The mind-body dichotomy is the starting point of Dualism, and became conceptualized in the form is currently known in the Western world in René Descartes’ philosophy. This view of reality leads to consider the corporeal as little valued and trivial.

Moral argument: A proof for the existence of God; God's existence is the only adequate grounds to explain objective morality.

Naturalism: The belief that physical nature is the only reality. The philosophy of naturalism is characterized by Monism, antisupernaturalism, scientism, and Humanism.

Nihilism: The view that there is no meaning, purpose, significance, or value in the universe.

Objective idealism: The belief that things (ideas) genuinely exist apart from our perception of them.

Objectivity: external to the mind, real; dealing with outward things and not with thoughts or feelings, exhibiting actual facts uncoloured by exhibitor’s feelings or opinions.

Ockham’s Razor: The explanation which fits the facts with the least assumptions is the best. Also known as the principle of parsimony.

Ontological argument: A proof for the existence of God; St. Anselm argued that reflection on God's perfect essence (or being) actually necessitates His existence.

Ontology: The study of being; often used interchangeably with Metaphysics.

Pantheism: A world view that makes God identical with the world; "All is God and God is all." God is wholly Immanent, and therefore not transcendent. Pantheism is a popular trend in the environmentalist movement.

Phenomena: In Kant, the world of appearance (how things appear to the senses); as opposed to the Noumena (world of reality). Also referred to as the phenomenal world.

Philosophy: Literally, the "love of wisdom"; an attempt to provide rational and coherent understanding of the fundamental questions of life.

Pluralism: The metaphysical view that ultimate reality consists of many things. Contrasted with Monism.

Pragmatism: An American philosophy which makes workability and practical consequences the test for truth.

Principlism: formal “Bioethics” or Principlism, is a normative system of ethics based on the three “principles”, usually identified as “Justice”, “Beneficence” and “Autonomy.”[1] It was established in 1979 as the “official” ethical system for purposes of federal legislation. Where traditional medical ethics focuses on the physician's duty to the individual patient, these Principles are interpreted in fundamentally utilitarian way, centered, like other utilitarian disciplines, around maximizing total happiness for the whole human race. Specifically, Principlism is the result of an act of the US Congress[2] requiring the appointment of a commission to “identify the basic ethical principles” by which ethical decisions in medical care, particularly surrounding end-of-life issues, could be decided. These were to be translated into practice as the basis of federal regulations concerning the use of human subjects in research. Principlism was derived from the works of secular moral philosophers of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, chiefly Kant, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls, a highly influential radical egalitarian Harvard University philosopher popular on the left in the early 1970’s. Principlism is now the leading form of ethics in the medical and biotechnology research establishments around the world. It forms the basis for most of the claims that embryonic stem cell research and cloning are “ethical”. The terms “bioethics” and “Principlism” are often taken to be synonymous[3].

Rationalism: Broadly speaking, the epistemological view that stresses reason as the test of truth. In a strict sense, the belief that at least some knowledge is acquired independent of sense experience. Contrasted with Empiricism.

Realism: The metaphysical view that asserts that physical objects exist apart from being perceived; the belief that the essences of things possess objective reality.

Relativism: The belief that no absolutes exist (in truth and/or ethics). Truth and morality vary from person to person, time to time, circumstance to circumstance.

Skepticism: In a loose sense, to doubt, question, or suspend judgment on philosophical issues. In a strict sense, to deny that true knowledge is attainable.

Socratic method: Derived from the Greek philosopher Socrates, a method for finding truth and meaning through rigorous questioning.

Solipsism: "I myself only exist." The only reality that exists is one's self. This is the basis of postmodernism.

Subjectivism: The belief that things (ideas) are dependent upon perception for their particular existence.

Subjectivity: belonging to, of, due to the consciousness of thinking or perceiving subject or ego. As opposed to real or external things; giving prominence to or depending on personal idiosyncrasy or individual point of view.

Substance: A thing's underlying essence; that which makes a thing what it is. (See “accident” and “essence”.)

Syllogism: An argument consisting of three categorical propositions, two serving as premises and one serving as a conclusion. “All cats are mammals; my pet is a cat; therefore, my pet is a mammal,” is an example of a valid syllogism. In pro-life apologetics, the entire rational case is summed up in the syllogism, “It is wrong to kill an innocent human being; the unborn are innocent human beings; therefore abortion, which kills the unborn, is wrong.”

Tabula rasa: Literally, a "blank tablet". John Locke's empirical view that human beings possess no innate (inborn) ideas or principles.

Teleological argument: A proof for the existence of God; design, beauty, harmony, and purposiveness in the universe require a cosmic architect (i.e., God). Known as the design argument, it was defended by Plato, but its most popular presentation was given by William Paley.

Theism: The world view that affirms the existence of an infinite, personal God, who is the transcendent creator, and immanent sustainer of the world. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are examples of theistic religions.

Thomism: Of or pertaining to the philosophical and theological though of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).

Transcendent: Beyond, or distinct from, the time/space world.

Weltanschauung: German term, referring to a person's world view (a conceptual scheme for interpreting reality).

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[1] The founding document of Principlism is the Belmont Report, published in April 1979, the result of a federal Commission charged with establishing a “neutral” system of ethics for biomedical research, that is, one that ws not based on traditional medical ethics which were seen as too “Judeo-Christian” in origin to be unbiased. http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm

[2] National Research Act, 1974

[3] For more on the meaning and provenance of Bioethics as a formal philosophical system, see Dr. Dianne Irving’s book, “What is Bioethics?” for which a website reference is included in Part V section 1. “Source documents and Recommended Reading”.